876-888

While the feminist movement had been gaining momentum prior to WWI, the war called on women to serve their countries internally while the men fought in the foreign wars. Since the men were called off to fight in war, the jobs that they performed needed to continue in order to maintain the internal functioning of the country. Consequently, the women were beckoned to join the workforce and, though they were not constantly working right next to men, the fact that women could perform the same tasks as men was hugely significant in the societal perception of women. The dependency of country’s on the women workforce during WWI fostered the growth of a new identity for women, one in which they were independent from the guidance and aid of men and were instead equally capable within society as men. However, while the growth of the female identity was great during WWI, the spectrum of the growth seemed to be confined to the period of warfare, when the male workforce was driven out of the country and the women were thus needed to replace them. Consequently, the strength of the female presence in the workforce was fleeting. Despite the fleeting nature of the female presence within the male-dominated workforce, the spirit of female independence and equality persevered and inspired further search for this spirit to be realized within society (and it slowly was with the initiation of female suffrage first in the U.S., Germany and the Soviet Union). WWI allowed women to penetrate not only the workforce but also to embrace a new empowered identity that was distinct and independent from men.

865-876

World War I occurred during a great technological transition. While armies now carried tanks and machine guns, they were still using strategies that had functioned before the presence of such powerful weaponry. This gap between technological preparation and strategic ability resulted in an outrageously large number of deaths for seemingly insignificant results. Despite the blatant presence of such a gap, countries were determined to demonstrate their military strength and ability, and allowed such determination to blind them of the grave reality of the war. Such blindness is demonstrated in Germany’s Schlieffen Plan, for, while they were not prepared to initiate the Schlieffen Plan, it was what they believed to be the only way to weaken both France and Germany and they consequently carried through with it despite their unpreparedness. While this particular plan didn’t necessarily demonstrate a multitude of deaths, the rushed nature of the procedure reveals the desire to acquire the title of most powerful country. While each country entered the war with the impression that, due to technological advancements, the war would be quick and a victor could be determined with one sweeping blow, the gap between advanced technology and almost primitive war plans weakened each country and caused WWI to be a long and drawn out war that had insignificant territorial gains.

855-862

Up until the late 19th century, science had been utilized to provide order and logic in an otherwise chaotic and uncontrolled realm. However, Freud and Nietzsche used science to prove the innate human lack of control. While science had previously focused on tangible facts and evidence, Freud and Nietzsche focused on the abstract nature of the consciousness and mind, having only human behavior and actions to serve as the foundation of their analysis. Not only did the foundation of their studies stray from the traditional, but they also specifically targeted the traditional social establishments that shaped the culture of that time, blaming such confining structures for the restriction of the human potential and for thus altering the true nature of the human reality. The separation of Freud and Nietzsche from the traditional conformities of society initiated a paralleled transformation in the artistic realms, inspiring artistic creations such as Black Lines by Wassily Kandinsky, 1913 (page 859). This abstract painting seems to be a complete expression of emotion. It follows no strategic pattern or form, however, despite the chaos that this painting conveys, it also shares an oddly tangible emotion to which the audience can relate. The studies of Freud and Nietzsche broke from the norm and, in doing so, broadened the potential understandings of the human reality and inspired humans to seek other forms of expression outside of what society deemed normal.

Summary

In class, we simulated a debate between the three leading Russian political groups: the Mensheviks, Bolsheviks and Octoberists. While these political groups that were all in agreement of the Russian necessity to undergo some form of political change. However, while they shared that common understanding of the deteriorating Russian state, they differed in not only the manner of implementing the necessary governmental change but also in the urgency or timing that this change required. The Mensheviks were tied strongly to Marx’s theory, and thus believed that Russia was not at the appropriate time for Russia to undergo a shift from feudalism to communism, especially since Russia had not yet transitioned to capitalism, which, according to Marx, was an essential component in the proper establishment of communism. To contrast this belief that Russia was not ready to shift to communism was the opinion of the minority, the Bolsheviks, who believed that they could divert from Marx’s complete theory and instead relieve Russia from its dismal political state by forcing Russia to switch to communism through a revolution. While the Mensheviks and Bolsheviks at least had common ground about the inevitability of this revolution and shift to communism, the Octoberists believed that somehow, the communist state could coexist with the current Russian government.

            While the Bolsheviks had been the minority, it was their argument that ultimately proved to be the most poignant and gained the most momentum. The Russian people were impatient, having waited and suffered too long with little to no governmental response or help. It is much easier to present the argument that the Bolsheviks did: one that would provide seemingly instant results for the discontented masses. It is much more difficult to tell people to wait and suffer even longer.   

844-851

While much of Europe experienced industrial change, and in countries, such as Germany, this change served as a unifying factor, Russia’s process of industrialization was particularly unique and further divided the enormous European country. Since it is such a huge country, Russia couldn’t industrialize in a uniform pattern, thus leaving some urban, industrialized patches amongst the immense rural area. Russia was further destabilized as a result of the economic downturn that it experienced, which inevitably resulted in increased unemployment and thus peasant discontent. Russia’s economic and industrial split resulted in a greater cultural divide. The peasants desperately believed that they could express their discontentment to Tsar Nicholas II, however, when a group of them attempted to articulate their dissatisfaction to the Tsar, they were met with a group of military officers, who, instead of being open to listening to the needs of the people, chose to shoot the dissatisfied peasants along with their faith in the security of their Tsar. The unequal spread of industrialization and employment opportunities inevitably led to peasant dissatisfaction. However, while this unhappiness was almost expected, the governmental refusal to adhere to or even listen to the complaints and needs of the people was not anticipated and demonstrated how, in order to industrialize, the Russian proletariat were going to suffer. 

823-837

Toward the end of the 19^th century, Europe experienced an industrial change that intensified European dependency on foreign goods and work, strengthened mass media and reorganized the preexisting capitalist institutions. This European cultural development was founded strongly in the technological development that resulted in a utilization of new materials, particularly steel. The transition from the use of iron to the use of steel shaped the European cultural for it provided more efficient technology that allowed for mass production, thus increasing the European desire for rapid production of manufactured goods. The European demand for rapid access to products was supported by innovation in technology, such as the Thomas Edison’s invention of the incandescent-filament light, which provided seemingly instant results.

            Aside from the technological innovations at home, the later part of the 19^th century also marked the spread of European influence and thus culture into other countries that were considered less developed in the eyes of the Europeans. This intensified imperialism was greatly supported by the new European dependency on oil (as opposed to the prior dependency on coal). Dependency on oil allowed European industries to move, since they were no longer tied to coal as an energy source. The use of oil as an energy source also allowed Europeans to travel farther faster, thus expediting the European sphere of influence and potential to exploit those less developed countries.

            The end of the 19^th century was the period in which the foundation was laid for the demand for seemingly instant results. Europeans had faster access to materials, information and countries, and thus grew accustomed to such quick results.

Summary

As demonstrated in, “A Place in the Sun” (1901), by Kaiser Wilhelm II, the strength of nationalism is a tool used by nations to promote imperialism. Wilhelm explains how through imperialism, citizens focus their attention abroad and on servicing the German nation instead of worrying about “the pettiness which surrounds him in daily life”.  Consequently, imperialism would strengthen a nation such as Germany internally and externally, for while people’s attention is refocused to German expansion, Germany is simultaneously achieving an international reputation.

            However, despite its power in affecting the people, nationalism was not the only tool used to encourage imperialism. There was the civilizing mission, or, as Rudyard Kipling writes of, “The White Man’s Burden” (1899). While Kipling could either be presenting sarcastic or genuine beliefs, imperialism was undoubtedly presented to citizens as an act to help those less fortunate and uncivilized nations. In his piece, Kipling’s descriptions of the members of imperialized nations as “savages” and “half-devil and half-child” distances those people from the civilized world and would most likely inspire anger or minimally a desire to change (and, as it is implied, therefore help) those “savages”.

            While there were other, more political devices used to awaken public support for imperialism, nations rallied the most support through playing the sentiments of the public. Both nationalism and the use of the “civilizing mission” touched the core and identity of the public—whether a national or more spiritual identity, and from this manipulation of human sentiment, imperialism created a foundation of public support.